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Древние города Украины (серия монет)

1. Эмиссия денег – Money creation is the process by which the money supply of a country or a monetary region is increased. A central bank may introduce new money into the economy by purchasing financial assets or lending money to financial institutions. However, in most countries today, most of the supply is in the form of bank deposits. Bank lending increases the amount of broad money beyond the amount of money originally created by the central bank. Reserve requirements, capital adequacy ratios, and other policies of the central bank influence this process, Central banks monitor the amount of money in the economy by measuring monetary aggregates such as M2. The effect of policy on the money supply is indicated by comparing these measurements on various dates. For example, in the United States, money supply measured as M2 grew from $6.407 trillion in January 2005, Monetary policy regulates a countrys money supply, the amount of broad currency in circulation. Almost all modern nations have central banks such as the United States Federal Reserve System, the European Central Bank, charged with the smooth functioning of the money supply and financial markets, these institutions are generally independent of the government executive. The primary tool of policy is open market operations, the central bank buys and sells financial assets such as treasury bills, government bonds. Purchases of these result in currency entering market circulation, while sales of these assets remove currency. Usually, open market operations are designed to target a specific short-term interest rate, for example, the U. S. Federal Reserve may target the federal funds rate, the rate at which member banks lend to one another overnight. In other instances, they instead target a specific exchange rate relative to some foreign currency. Other monetary policy tools to expand the money supply include decreasing interest rates by fiat, increasing the monetary base, some other means are, discount window lending, moral suasion, and open mouth operations. The conduct and effects of policy and the regulation of the banking system are of central concern to monetary economics. In modern economies, relatively little of the supply of money is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in the United States, of the $8.853 trillion in broad money supply, only about 10% consisted of physical coins, the manufacturing of new physical money is usually the responsibility of the central bank, or sometimes, the governments treasury. Contrary to popular belief, money creation in a modern economy does not directly involve the manufacturing of new physical money, such as paper currency or metal coins. Instead, when the central bank expands the money supply through open market operations, governments or commercial banks may draw on these accounts to withdraw physical money from the central bank

2. Украина – Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling

3. Украинская гривна – The hryvnia, sometimes hryvnya, sign, ₴, code, UAH), has been the national currency of Ukraine since 2 September 1996. The hryvnia is subdivided into 100 kopiykas and it is named after a measure of weight used in medieval Kievan Rus. The currency of Kievan Rus in the century was called grivna. The word is thought to derive from the Slavic griva, c. f, Ukrainian, Russian, Bulgarian, and Serbo-Croatian грива / griva, meaning mane. It might have indicated something valuable worn around the neck, usually made of silver or gold, later, the word was used to describe silver or gold ingots of a certain weight, c. f. The modern Ukrainian hryvnia is sometimes transliterated as hryvna, hrivna, gryvna or grivna, due to its Russian language counterpart, гри́вна, however, the standard English name for the currency is hryvnia. The National Bank of Ukraine has recommended that a distinction be made between hryvnia and grívna in both historical and practical means, the nominative plural of hryvnia is hryvni, while the genitive plural is hryven′. An exception for this rule is numbers ending in 11,12,13 and 14 for which the plural is also used, for example. The singular for the subdivision is копійка, the plural is копійки. The hryvnia sign is a cursive Ukrainian letter He, with a horizontal stroke, symbolizing stability. The sign was encoded as U+20B4 in Unicode 4.1 and it is now supported by the latest computer systems. In Ukraine, if the sign is unavailable, the abbreviation грн. is used. A currency called hryvna was used in Kievan Rus, in 1917, after the Ukrainian National Republic declared independence from the Russian Empire, the name of the new Ukrainian currency became hryvnia, a revised version of the Kievan Rus hryvna. The hryvnia replaced the karbovanets during the period 2–16 September 1996, the karbovanets was subject to hyperinflation in the early 1990s following the collapse of the USSR. To a large extent, the introduction of hryvnia was secretive, Hryvnia was introduced according to Presidents Decree dated 26 August 1996, published on August 29. During the transition period, September 2–16, both hryvnia and karbovanets were used in circulation, but merchants were required to change only in hryvnias. All bank accounts were converted to hryvnia automatically, during the transition period, 97% of karbovanets were taken out of circulation, including 56% in the first 5 days of the currency reform. After 16 September 1996, the remaining karbovanets were allowed to be exchanged to hryvnias in banks, the hryvnia was introduced during the period when Victor Yushchenko was the Chairman of National Bank of Ukraine

4. Номинальная стоимость – The face value is the value of a coin, stamp or paper money, as printed on the coin, stamp or bill itself by the issuing authority. The face value of coins, stamps, or bill is usually its legal value, however, their market value need not bear any relationship to the face value. For example, some coins or stamps may be traded at prices considerably above their face value. The face value of bonds usually represents the principal or redemption value, interest payments are expressed as a percentage of face value. Before maturity, the value of a bond may be greater or less than face value, depending on the interest rate payable. As bonds approach maturity, actual value approaches face value, in the case of stock certificates, face value is the par value of the stock. In the case of stock, par value is largely symbolic. In the case of preferred stock, dividends may be expressed as a percentage of par value, the face value of a life insurance policy is the death benefit. In the case of so-called double indemnity life insurance policies, the beneficiary receives double the value in case of accidental death. The face value of property, casualty or health insurance policies is the amount payable. Face value can be used to refer to the apparent value of something other than a financial instrument, in this context, face value refers to the apparent merits of the idea, before the concept or plan has been tested. Face value also refers to the price printed on a ticket to an event, concert. In many jurisdictions, re-selling tickets for more than face value constitutes ticket scalping and is illegal, taking someone at face value is assuming another persons suggestion, offer, or proposal is sincere, rather than a bargaining ploy. Denomination Nominal value Melt value Par value Place value

5. Нейзильбер – Nickel silver, Mailechort, German silver, Argentan, new silver, nickel brass, albata, alpacca, or electrum is a copper alloy with nickel and often zinc. The usual formulation is 60% copper, 20% nickel and 20% zinc, Nickel silver is named for its silvery appearance, but it contains no elemental silver unless plated. The name German silver refers to its development by 19th-century German metalworkers in imitation of the Chinese alloy known as paktong, all modern, commercially important nickel silvers contain significant amounts of zinc, and are sometimes considered a subset of brass. Nickel silver was first known and used in China, during the Qing dynasty, it was smuggled into various parts of the East Indies, despite a government ban on the export of nickel silver. It became known in the west from imported wares called bai-tong or paktong, according to Berthold Laufer, it was identical with khar sini, one of the seven metals recognized by Jābir ibn Hayyān. In Europe, consequently, it was at first called paktong, the earliest European mention of paktong occurs in the year 1597. From then until the end of the century there are references to it as having been exported from Canton to Europe. German imitations of paktong, however, began to appear from about 1750 onward, in 1770 the Suhl metalworks were able to produce a similar alloy. In 1823 a German competition was held to perfect the production process, the brothers Henniger in Berlin and Ernst August Geitner in Schneeberg independently achieved this goal. The manufacturer Berndorf named the trademark brand Alpacca, which became known in northern Europe for nickel silver. In 1830 the German process of manufacture was introduced into England and that is why today the alloy has lost its original name and is generally known as German silver. In 1832, a form of German silver was also developed in Birmingham, after 1840, the development of electroplating caused nickel silver to become widely used. It formed an ideal, strong and bright substrate for the plating process and it was also used unplated in applications such as cheaper grades of cutlery. Nickel silver first became popular as a metal for silver-plated cutlery and other silverware. It is widely used in the production of coins and its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for its high electrical resistance. In the 19th century, particularly after 1868, Plains Indian jewelers were able to easily acquire sheets of German silver and they used them to cut, stamp, and cold hammer a wide range of accessories and also horse gear. Nickel silver is the metal of choice among contemporary Kiowa and Pawnee metalsmiths in Oklahoma, many of the metal fittings on modern higher-end equine harness and tack are of nickel silver. Early in the century, German silver was used by automobile manufacturers before the advent of steel sheet metal, for example

6. Серебро – Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper

7. Памятная монета – Commemorative coins are coins that were issued to commemorate some particular event or issue. Most world commemorative coins were issued from the 1960s onward, although there are examples of commemorative coins of earlier date. Such coins have a design with reference to the occasion on which they were issued. Many coins of this serve as collectors items only, although some countries are also issuing commemorative coins for regular circulation. Vast numbers of coins are continuously being issued, highlighting ancient monuments or sites, historical personalities. While such thematic coins may or may not commemorate any event or jubilee. Circulating commemoratives are intended to be used for commerce, but the design will only be issued for a time, is intended to draw some attention to a specific event or person. Examples include the €2 commemorative coins, or U. S.50 State Quarters, non-circulating legal tender are coins which are legal tender, and thus can in theory be used to purchase goods or services, but are not intended to be used in such a manner. Rather, they are intended to be used only as souvenirs, historically, the coins issued by any state have always reflected the current political or economic situation. Many ancient and pre-modern coins certainly commemorate events in contemporary times, for instance, Roman coins often have references to military campaigns and the defeat of foreign powers. These reverse types often represent the subordination of recently conquered territories to Roman authority. Such coins are examples of ancient political propaganda, the Roman Empire may be represented by a proud warrior raising an undersized figure, representing the defeated enemy. Throughout history, coins have commonly been issued on special occasions, in some cases, emergency money have been issued under unfavourable conditions, such as a city under siege. Such emergency coins were issued in Vienna in 1529, while the city was besieged by the troops of the Ottoman Empire, due to the conditions at the time, such coins are frequently minted on square flans, rather than round ones. European square coins of this era are known by their German name klippe, coins might also be issued with the specific purpose of financing a military campaign, or for the payment of tribute or war indemnity by a feudal lord to his sovereign. During recent centuries, specially prepared coins have been issued to proclaim the coronation of a new monarch, such coins are known as largesse coins. This type of coins were issued in India during the Mughal era, in Europe, such coins were scattered from the royal chariot, to achieve attention and applause from the public. In Sweden, coins of this type were issued as late as 1873, during the era of the formation of the European nation states, the issuance of special coins explicitly commemorating various events became increasingly common

8. Национальный банк Украины – The law united all offices of the former State bank, Noble Land Bank, and Peasant Land Bank. At the same time there existed a decree of the Central Executive Committee of Ukraine about the nationalization of banks since December 14,1917, on January 5,1918, the Ukrainian State Bank started to issue its own money. On August 10,1918, there was signed a statute on the Ukrainian State Bank, on August 23,1918, there was established the State Land Bank. At the end of World War I, Ukraine became occupied by a new Russian regime - Bolsheviks, bolshevist Russia adopted a law of War Communism which discontinued use of any financial institutions. However, in 1921 across Ukraine started to be established State Banks of the Russian SFSR which later were transformed into the Central Bank of the USSR. There were over 15 banks of ministerial status, over 20 banks of state/cooperative institutions, Moscow banks in Ukraine, officially, the National Bank of Ukraine acted as the Central Bank of Ukraine since early 1991. Like institutions of many newly independent nations, it faced dire financial straits during the 1990s, on March 20,1991, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the resolution On Banks and Banking Activity, which became Law on May 1. Former President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko was Governor of the National Bank of Ukraine from January 1993 to December 1999, later Serhii Arbuzov became Prime Minister of Ukraine for a short term in 2014 after being Governor of the National Bank. The National Bank of Ukraine is an entity with separated property. Its authorized capital amounts to UAh200 million and is the property which is in the full economic competence of the National Bank. According to Article 99 of the Constitution of Ukraine, adopted in 1996, to carry out its main function, the National Bank shall foster the stability of the banking system and, within its competence, the price stability. The National Bank determines a kind of notes, their denomination, distinctive features. The National Bank of Ukraine ensures the accumulation and custody of the gold and currency reserves and the conduction of transactions with them, the National Bank of Ukraine has the power to initiate legislation. Resolutions of the NBU becoming valid just by publishing on their homepage www. bank. gov. ua. The National Bank of Ukraine is governed by the Head of the National Bank of Ukraine and its directory, the council consists of 15 members including the Head of the National Bank as the ex officio position. The other members of the council are appointed by a quota of seven members from the President of Ukraine. According to the Constitution of Ukraine, the function of the National Bank is to ensure the stability of Ukraines monetary unit. To carry this out, the National Bank fosters the stability of the system and

9. Серебряные монеты – Silver coins are possibly the oldest mass-produced form of coinage. Silver has been used as a coinage metal since the times of the Greeks, the ancient Persians used silver coins between 612-330 BC. Before 1797, British pennies were made of silver, as with all collectible coins, many factors determine the value of a silver coin, such as its rarity, demand, condition and the number originally minted. Ancient silver coins coveted by collectors include the Denarius and Miliarense, while more recent collectible silver coins include the Morgan Dollar, other than collectors silver coins, silver bullion coins are popular among people who desire a hedge against currency inflation or store of value. Silver has a currency symbol of XAG under ISO4217. The earliest coins of the world were minted in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor around 600 BC. The coins of Lydia were made of electrum, which is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, the concept of coinage, i. e. stamped lumps of metal of a specified weight, quickly spread to adjacent regions, such as Aegina. In these neighbouring regions, inhabited by Greeks, coins were made of silver. As Greek merchants traded with Greek communities throughout the Mediterranean Sea and these early Greek silver coins were denominated in staters or drachmas and its fractions. More or less simultaneously with the development of the Lydian and Greek coinages, the Chinese coins, however, were a different concept and they were made of bronze. The coins of the Greeks were issued by a number of city states. The coinage systems were not entirely the same from one place to another, however, the so-called Attic standard, Corinthian standard, Aiginetic standard and other standards defined the proper weight of each coin. Each of these standards were used in places throughout the Mediterranean region. In the 4th century BC, the Kingdom of Macedonia came to dominate the Greek world, the most powerful of their kings, Alexander the Great eventually launched an attack on the Kingdom of Persia, defeating and conquering it. Greek coins were now issued by kings, and only to an extent by cities. Greek rulers were now minting coins as far away as Egypt, the tetradrachm was a popular coin throughout the region. This era is referred to as the hellenistic era, while much of the Greek world was being transformed into monarchies, the Romans were expanding their control throughout the Italian Peninsula. The Romans minted their first coins during the early 3rd century BC, the earliest coins were - like other coins in the region - silver drachms with a supplementary bronze coinage

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